“C”. CHARGED PARTICLES, ELECTRODYNAMICS, RADIATION AND ALL THAT

 

By: Clarence L. Dulaney

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     Missouri City, TX 77489

     e-mail  cldtx1@sbcglobal.net

 

ABSTRACT: Basically, C arises along with all the other topics in the title from relative motions of charged particles.  J. J. Thomson in 1893 showed theoretically that C should be the limiting speed of a charged particle.  He attributed this to an increase in mass of the particle with speed.  Weberian Electrodynamics is based on the relative motion of charge particles, and accounts for the radiation from accelerated charged particles.  A, Einstein is incorrect in stating that the speed of light in free space is not affected by the speed of the source.  This is shown by the "red shift" of the spectrum from stars that are moving away from the earth-bound observer.  Some interesting deductions are made from the spectrum of hydrogen

 

A.CHARGED PARTICLES AND C

 

In 1893 [1], J. J. Thomson, extending the electrodynamics of J. Maxwell, theorized that the e/m ratio for a charged particle should decrease by the ratio (1-(v/c)2)½ with increasing speed v.  Thus e/m should go to zero as v approached c. 

This was shown  to be true experimentally by Kaufmann in 1902, by Buchner in 1909 and by Bertozzi in 1964.  See my papers on "Charge vs Speed" [2] and "Bertozzi Critique" [3].

Thomson assumed that charge could not decrease with speed, so that mass must increase, becoming infinite as v approached c.  He thereby condemned physics to a century plus of STR.

Note that H. Lorentz in 1904[4.30] (note that in  [a.xxx], a is the reference and xxx is the page) and A. Einstein in 1905 [4.63]  both ASSUMED that the increase in mass with speed also applied to non-charged bodies (particularly note Einstein's reasoning).

See my paper "Mass vs. Speed"[5] for references that indicate that mainstream physicists now do not believe that mass increases with speed.  However they still cannot force themselves to believe that charge decreases with speed.

One of the primary reasons they find charge decrease difficult is the neutrality of atoms, which they assume to consist of stationary positive nuclei with one or more electrons whizzing about in solar type orbits.  See my paper "The Stationary Hydrogen Atom"[6] for a number of reasons a solar type atom is untenable.

One particle that moves at speed c and has no charge is the "gamma ray".  This particle is a combination of an electron and a positron brought about by an "annihilation" reaction as a by-product of radioactivity [7].  The electron and positron have opposite charges and spins.  Since the "gamma ray" travels at speed c both charges are reduced to zero and converted to opposite magnetic fields that cancel each other.  When the particle is stopped in any manner, the charges are immediately returned, becoming once again an electron and a positron.  Considerable energy is also produced in the stopping process.

There is no known way of measuring the so-called wave length of the gamma particle, or any other high-speed neutral particle.  The so-called diffraction patterns of neutrons are actually produced by protons [8] and do not indicate wavelength of the protons, 

When charged particles move at some speed, the charge decrease goes to produce a magnetic effect.  When the particle is returned to rest, the magnetic effect disappears.  The same magnetic effect is produced by the electrons in a cathode ray tube as in the wires providing current to the CRT [2].  The fact that the electrons in the tube are not dispersed by the Coulomb effect is due to the decrease in charge due to motion [3]

 

B, ELECTRODYNAMICS AND C

1. MAXWELL, FARADAY THEORY

Maxwell's Equations were developed on the basis that electrical and magnetic effects were co-equal and that "electromagnetic waves" traveled at speed c in the "luminiferous aether".  

One argument against the Equations was that they do not comply with Newton's Third Law.  Both volumes of O'Rahilly's "Electromagnetic Theory" [8] are primarily a diatribe against Maxwell. 

Nevertheless, the Equations are the accepted basis of mainstream Electrodynamics.

Several interesting deductions have been based on them in addition to that of Thomson mentioned above.

Pierce [10.121] shows that, based on the atom of Thomson (The "plum pudding" where electrons and positive ions are interspersed), acceleration of an electron by the positively charged nucleus leads to radiation of a plane "electric" wave at speed c.  This will be discussed in more detail in Section D.

2.  WEBER'S ELECTRODYNAMICS

See my paper on Weber's Force [11].  Here it is noted that c is legitimately introduced into Electrodynamics by means of the "Coulomb Potential for relatively moving charges",    (q1q2/r) (1-(v/c)2).  Vector manipulation of this expression leads to Weber's Force.  Further manipulation leads to Ampère's Force.  Both these forces comply with Newton's Third Law,

There is an acceleration term in Weber's Force that can lead to radiation.  This was cited by critics as reason for rejection, since the Maxwellians claimed this did not comply with conservation of energy.  However, this is incorrect, because the entire thermodynamic system must be considered when radiation is considered.  See the Weber paper [11].

Weber and Kohlrausch [12] showed experimentally that the ratio of the unit of electrostatic current is c times that in the electromagnetic system, (when corrected for the incorrect use of the Fechtner hypothesis).  This indicates that magnetic effects are smaller by a factor of c from those of electric effects.  The radiation effects are Electrodynamic rather than Electromagnetic. 

Kirchoff, and later Weber, theorized that current waves should travel at speed c on low impedance wires.  Three experiments in the 1890's showed that this actually occurred.  These experiments are referenced in Pierce's book [10.334],[12].  None of the experiments or the book reference Kirchoff or Weber.

 

C.  EINSTEIN AND THE SPEED OF LIGHT

In his 1905 paper, Einstein makes two misstatements about c.  The first {4.38] is that ···"light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body."  Later in the same paper [4.56] he discusses the Doppler Effect in which the frequency of light incoming from "outer space" is shifted (to the red) because of the relative motion of the source  to the observer.  The only way this shift could occur would be if the speed of the light partook of the relative motion of the source.  See Einstein's strange examples of infinite frequency and magnitude.   (At any rate it is impossible to quantitatively measure the relative speed and distance of stars by means of the Doppler shift. See reference 13.)

The second misstatement Einstein makes about c is on page 46.[14]  There he is trying to show that the  consistency of  c with the Principle of Relativity.  He writes down what he calls the equation of a spherical wave at speed c, namely  x2 + y2 +z2 = (ct)2,  Unfortunately for him this is not the equation of a sphere, since light moves in a straight line.  At time t = 1 second , since x=y=z=c, the equation gives 3c2 = c2 , which is obviously incorrect.  One questions if the referees of the paper were physicists.

 

D.  SOME DEDUCTIONS FROM THE HYDROGEN SPECTRUM

As mentioned above Pierce notes that "an electric wave" at speed c may be emitted by a Thomson type atom [15].  Pierce restricts the electron speed to c/1500, but actually a speed of c/137.1 will be shown to be acceptable.

Suppose the atom is hydrogen.  We know by actual measurement that the wavelength of the most energetic line is 911.5 Å, and that the ionization energy is 13.6 ev (2.1787 x 10-11 ergs).  Suppose the electron is ionized "to infinity" and is attracted  toward the proton.   The energy  ½mv2 =2.1787x10-11 ergs.  Thus v = 2.1882 x 108 cm/sec and  v/c = 1/137.1 .  This is interesting because the mystical a, the "fine structure constant" is defined as 1/137.1   (Feynman is said to have wondered how God created it.)  With this value for v/c,  (1-(v/c)2)½ comes out to be 0.997887, which indicates once again that this wave is virtually all electric.

The frequency of the shortest wavelength line of H is 3.2913 x 1015 Hz  (c/l).  Dividing the ionization energy by this frequency gives 6.6196 x 10-27 erg sec, which M. Planck called h. ((Looking at a large number of atoms in a "black body"   Planck's statistics apply to individual atoms radiating at a large number of frequencies rather than continuously, and the energy of each of these lines is h times its frequency.)

Rydberg's constant for hydrogen is equal to 3.2913 x 1015 Hz.  Rydberg decided to express this as a wave number (or reciprocal wavelength). This comes out to be 1/911.5 x 10-8 cm or 1.0971 x 105 cm-1.  see my paper on the "Stationary Hydrogen Atom" [6] for an explanation of the H atom spectrum.

 

REFERENCES

1.     J. J. Thomson, "Notes on Recent Advances in Electricity and Magnetism", Oxford Clarendon Press, (1893) p 21

2.     C. Dulaney, "Charge vs. Speed"

3.     C. Dulaney, "Bertozzi Experiment Critique"

4.     W. Perrett and G. Jeffery, "The Principle of Relativity", Dover Publications, NY (1952)

5.     C. Dulaney, Mass vs. Speed"

6.     C. Dulaney, "The Stationary Hydrogen Atom"

7.     C. Dulaney, "Atomic Structure and Radioactivity"

8.     C. Dulaney, "What is an Atom"

9.     A. O'Rahilly, "Electromagnetic Theory" Volume I and II, Dover, NY, (1965)

10. G. Pierce, Electric Oscillators and Electric Waves", McGraw-Hill, NY, 1920

11. C. Dulaney.  "Weber's Electrodynamics"

12. C. Dulaney, Weber to Maxwell"

13.  C. Dulaney, The age of the Universe"

14. C. Dulaney, "Why STR"

15.  J. J. Thomson, Phil. Mag, 6th Ser., Vol. 7, p237 (1904)

    NOTE: Check http://mywebpage.netscape.com/clarencedulaney/to access all my papers

 

© August 16, 2006

Clarence L. Dulaney