NUCLEAR
ENERGY
CHARGE
e-mail cldtx1@sbcglobal.net
In
an article in Scientific American1, G. Fishman and D. Hartmann state that
electrons and positrons are formed from neutrinos in the atmosphere of
“neutron” stars. Since most
establishment physicists postulate that neutrinos have virtually zero mass,
this would amount to creating “massive” charges from “nothing”,
It
is here postulated that the charge creation process may occur in any star where
the temperature is 106 K or higher, which takes in the cores of most stars2. Rates of the reactions probably
increase with temperature.
Previously3 it has been postulated that
neutrinos, N, and antineutrinos, A, have masses of about 1/3 that of an
electron, and a radius of about 0.529 Å.
The neutrino has a -½, and the A a +½
spin. This makes them polar, and they
combine in some cases to form the AN with no resultant
spin.
To
form an electron or positron
would require collision of three particles, which has a very low
probability. Therefore it is proposed
that two AN’s collide, and
energy is added by the high temperature medium. 2AN +energy = e- +A, or 2AN + energy = e+
+ N. It is proposed that the energy
source is a g-ray (actually g-particle, see below). The energy
of the g-particle is ½mec2. If the g-particle is an electron,
the resulting created particle will be a positron and vice-versa. Over time, the charges will even out.
After
the electron is formed, it remains as such unless contacted by a positron,
whereupon, it is “annihilated”, to become two gamma particles. The positron may also attract AN's to protect itself, eventually
becoming a proton. This further
increases the mass created from “nothing”.
About 5500 AN's are
required. Assuming a spherical proton,
17+ layers of AN's would be required.
GAMMA “PARTICLES”
There
are three different gamma particles. When “free” electrons and positrons
collide they annihilate, forming two particles that are propagated at speed c
in opposite directions, to conserve momentum.
In each case, the charge becomes zero, being converted into magnetic
energy4. The mechanical energy of each is ½mec2. When the particle is stopped, the charge is
regained, along with the mechanical energy.
Because
of the very high magnetic energy of the “single” gamma-particles, there should be
interesting effects from application of very high magnetic “fields” to the
rays. As far as is known, such
experiments have not been run, because the magnetic properties have not been
expected. It has been noted that small
magnetic fields do not deflect gamma-particles, but probably the type particles
involved were of the third type.
The
third type of of gamma-particle is formed when a
light speed electron penetrates to the center of a proton, and annihilates the
central positron. In addition to
scattering 5500 AN's, the
particle that is formed goes off at the speed of light, with both the electron
and the positron. Their spins and
magnetic energies cancel each other. The
total mechanical
energy consists of that of the incoming electron plus the charge energy of the
two particles, or mec2 . When this type is stopped, the fully charged
electron and positron are recovered, along with the total mechanical energy,
Thus,
in any case, formation of a gamma-particle converts charge to mechanical
energy, and leads to transfer of energy over considerable distance.
Note
that the methods used to measure the “wavelength” of
gamma-particles is meaningless, since deflection by crystals slows the
particle and dissipates some of its energy.
The gamma-particle has no wavelength.
RADIATIONAL HEAT
It
is known that radioactive substances produce heat5. For example, a gram of Radiun
(and its products) produces 140 cal/hr. This amounts to 1.01 x 105MeV/sec. This amount of heat would require the
complete absorption of energy from 6.73 x 104 (1.5 MeV
gamma-particles/sec.)
That the process is not a very efficient method of producing heat is
shown in Appendix A,
It
is here believed that production and absorption of energy in radioactivity is brought about by
gamma-particles. Charge is converted to
energy, and energy of the gamma particles is converted back to charge when the
particles are brought to rest. This is
all brought about by the decrease of charge with speed by the formula e = e0(1 –
(v/c)2)½
GAMMA- and
The
lightest naturally occurring isotope that is radioactive6 is 19K40. Potassium is an alkali metal, as are Li, Na, Rb, Cs and Fa. Of these metals, Li has 2 natural isotopes,
Na has one, K has 3, Rb has 2, Cs has one and Fa has no naturally occurring isotopes. One each of the isotopes of K and Rb are radioactive. Both the radioactive isotopes emit B-, while the K isotope emits B+ and gammas also.
Is there a simple explanation for these facts?
First,
we must explain why 3Li6 and 3Li7 are not radioactive7. Both these isotopes are built on a 2He4 base. The 6 isotope has 1 proton and one “neutron”
which is actually a H atom2, which will henceforth be called “a”, while the 7 isotope
has 1 proton and 2a’s. (Both also have a
valence electron associated with the proton.)
It
is postulated that the two particles (the p and a) of the 6 isotope are
positioned 180° apart for minimum energy, while the 3 particles of the 7
isotope the p and 2 a's) are positioned at 120°
apart. It is also postulated that the He
base is opaque to electrons, so that no g-particles can form.
The three K isotopes all have one proton8, while the 40 isotope has 1a, and the 41 isotope has 2 a’s. Once again, the 40 isotope has the particles positioned at 180°, while the 41 isotope particles are positioned at 120°, this time about the “transparent” 18Ar38 core. The particles of the 41 isotope cannot “see” each other directly. For the 40 Isotope, there is direct vision possible, and at (long) intervals, the valence electron is excited to light velocity by the proton of the a. Several things can happen. One is that the electron can penetrate to the center of the proton and knock out the positron as a b+. Another is that it can produce a gamma-particle by annihilation of the positron. The third thing is that the electron may pass through (without interaction) as a B-.
The
Rb system has 2 natural isotopes based on a 36Kr84 core9. These are 85 which has 1 proton, and the 87
which has a proton and 2 a’s. In the radioactive 87 isotope, the three
particles are spaced at 120°. In this
case, the Kr base must be somewhat more “open” than the Ar
is. The valence electron “sees” the
proton of one of the a’s (at long intervals), and is
accelerated, but not to light speed, and is emitted as a 0.274 MeV b-.
It is interesting to note that the artificially produced isotope 86 of Rb has the short half life of 18.66 days, again indicating the “transparency” of the Kr core.
The
only other naturally occurring isotope10 with atomic weight less
than 81Th
is 71Lu176 which emits a b- and several gammas13..
REFERENCES
1. G. Fishman and D. Hartmann,
“Gamma Bursts”, Sci. Amer., 277, July, 1977, p49.
2. C. L. Dulaney,
“What is an Atom”
3. E. Novotny, “Introduction to
Stellar Atmospheres and Interiors”,, Oxford University Press, NY,1973, p250ff
4. C. l..
Dulaney, “Charge vs Speed”
5. T. Osgood, A. Ruark, and
6. G. F. Hull, “Elementary
Modern Physics”, Macmillan and
7. J. A. Dean, Ed.,”Lange’s handbook of Chemistry, 12th
Edition”,
8. J. A. Dean, ibid, p 3-21
9. ibid, p 3-20,21
10. ibid, p3-35
11. ibid, p3-83
12. ibid, p3-106
NOTE: My papers are at: http://mywebpage.netscape.com/clarencedulaney
APPENDIX A
HEAT PRODUCTION BY RADIUM
A gram of Radium (and its products) produces5 1.40 cal/hr This is equivalent to 3.65 x 108 MeV/hr,
or 1.01 x 105 MeV/sec.
Thus, it would require absorption of the entire energy of 6.73 x 104 1.5 MeV
gamma-particles/sec.
It will be assumed that the
material is 100% 88Ra126
which has a half life if 1590 years12, or 5.02 x 1010 seconds. Since there are 2.665 x 1021 atoms in the gram of Ra,
There would, on average, be 2.55 x 1010 disintegrations/sec. All of these involve gamma-particles, some
leading to expulsion of alphas
and/or B’s, both of which absorb energy. The residual heat is
caused by partial or complete absorption of energy from the g-particles, (some of which
are emitted without change).
Thus,
the heat energy produced is only 2.66 x 10-4 % effective (6.73 x 104/ 2,55 x 1010), based on absorption of all the energy from the
disintegrations..
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Clarence L. Dulaney