e-mail cldtx1@sbcglobal.net pdulaney@comcast.com
ABSTRACT: Mass and Matter are synonymous. Gravitational and Inertial Mass are identical[1].
Mass (and
charge) are made from neutrinos in stars [2].
Mass cannot be
destroyed, but may be converted into gamma “rays” (actually gamma particles)
and neutrinos in radioactive disintegrations[3].
Without Mass there would be no matter. Mass (and charge) is created in stars from
neutrinos [2]. Electrons and positrons
are first made. They then may annihilate
each other, forming a gamma particle which transfers the energy produced at the
speed of light until it is stopped by a collision. The eelectron
and positron are produced again. At any
time, the positron may be protected by attracting neutrinos and antineutrinos
to become a proton. This leads to an
increase of over 1800 fold in the mass of the positron [3]. The proton after formation is quite stable
and may take part in fusion reactions in the star. This further increases the
mass, originally formed from neutrinos.
When the proton takes part in a fusion reaction, it loses, on average
about 54
Neutrinos. This makes the new nucleus stable to loss of
a proton [14].
NOVAS
All stars evolve, gaining in mass and luminosity
through fusion reactions. For stars more
massive than the sun, eventually enough mass is gained that the star cannot
sustain itself. It explodes to form a “Nova”. When it does so, it spreads its mass over
large areas of the universe. With stars
about 15 solar masses or higher, the explosion is a “Supernova”, which blasts
out elements up to Uranium over huge distances [4,5].
Other means of distributing mass throughout the
Universe include cosmic “rays”, neutrinos and Em
radiation. Cosmic “rays” consist largely
of light speed electrons, positrons and protons, but may include ions up to
atomic number 26 (Fe) [6].
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Let us consider the effects of mass on earth, where
we can make laboratory measurements.
Under ideal conditions,(primarily
no friction), Newton’s Laws describe the motion of
bodies.
1.Law of Inertia
A body at rest, or moving
with a constant (straight line) velocity remains in that condition unless acted
upon by an external force. Mv = constant.
2. Momentum Change Equals Force
d(mv)/dt = F = ma
3. Conservation of Momentum (Elastic Collision)
F1,2 = F2,1 or,
m1a1 = m2a2.
Note that all three laws involve the mass of the
bodies. There would be no action without
mass. The mass involved is “inertial”
mass.
GRAVITATIONAL AND INERTIAL MASS
If two bodies having masses
m1
and m2 are
separated by a distance r (center-to-center), Newton’s
Law of Gravitation states that there is an attractive force between them, (with
G, the Universal constant of Gravitation =-6.6672 x 10-8 dyne cm2/gm2)
F = G(m1m2/r2) This force is an action, reaction pair, and
the masses involved are “gravitational” masses, which, if small enough may be
measured by means of a balance.
Now, the question is, is
there any difference between the inertial mass and the gravitational mass of a
body? Considerable research has been
done on this topic. Finally, work by Dicke and co-workers proved that these masses are the same
to within 1 part in 3x1010[1].
“PUSH” GRAVITY
Gravitation is a “push”
effect caused by differential absorption or reflection of neutrinos by the two
bodies involved [7].
COHESION OF LIQUID
MOLECULES
Let us consider why
non-polar liquids do not immediately become gasses. Liquid molecules are very close together, and
even though not held together by polar forces, the molecules are pushed
together by differential collisions with neutrinos. This provides the so-called
van der Waal’s force [8]
between the molecules Such an action does not occur in
a gas because the molecules are very far apart in a gas. The gas molecules themselves rarely
collide. Neutrinos do contribute to
friction in gases.
In polar liquids such as
water or ammonia, there are electrical (dipole) forces between the molecules
strong enough that water with a molecular weight of 18 has a boiling point of
100°C, whereas the non-polar pentane with a molecular weight of 72 has a
boiling point of 36°C.
MASS OF A GAS
Based on the kinetic
theory of gases developed by J. Maxwell It can be
shown that the mass of a gas (in a container) is proportional to the change in
momentum transferred to the container walls.
See Appendix A.
RADIATION “PRESSURE”
Em
radiation exerts a small force by absorption on a black surface, and a larger
force by reflection from a mirror surface.
Appendix B shows that this effect may be illustrated by the Crooke’s Radiometer, or “light-mill”. The momentum transferred by reflection is
about 105
times that due to absorption of a given intensity of light on a blackened
surface.
MASS IS INDESTRUCTIBLE
In a Steady State
Universe, total mass cannot change [13].
It may be converted back and forth to neutrinos and gamma particles in
fusion [3] and radioactivity reactions [14].
SUMMARY
There is no matter
without mass, including Em radiation.
Gravitational mass and
inertial mass are identical
Newton’s
Laws define properties of mass (in ideal cases).
Transfer of momentum is
responsible for gas pressure and mass, and for radiation “pressure” (actually
radiation momentum).
Gravity is a “push”
effect caused by differential absorption and reflection of neutrinos.
REFERENCES
1.
P. Roll, R. Krotkov and R. Dicke, Ann. Phys
(NY), 26, 442, 1964.
2. C. Fishman and D. Hartmann, “Gamma Bursts”, Sci. Amer. 2277, July 1977 p49
3. C. Dulaney, “Nuclear
Energy, Creation of Charge and Mass”
4. J. Paschakoff, “Astronomy,
From the Earth to the Universe”,
5. C. Dulaney, “No
Black Holes”
6.
T. Osgood, A. Ruark and E. Hutchisson. “Atoms, Radiation and
Nuclei”, John Wiley, NY, 1955, p407
7. C. Kittel, et al., “Mechanics”,
Berkeley Physics Course, Vol. I, 2nd Ed.,
8. C. Dulaney, “Push Gravity”
9. F. Gucker and R.
Seifert, “Physical Chemistry”, , W. Norton aand Co, NY, 1966, p461ff.
10. D. Halliday
and R. Resnick, “Physics”, John Wiley, NY, 1978,
p522ff
11. P. Gibbs, “How Does a Light-Mill Work?”,
kttp://math.ucr.ecu/home/baez/physics/General/LightMill/light-mill.html
12. C. Dulaney,
“Why C?”
13. C. Dulaney,
“The Steady State Universe”
14. C. Dulaney,
“What is an Atom?”
NOTE: All C. Dulaney’s
papers may be found at: http://mywebpage.netscape.com/clarencedulaney
©June 2004
APPENDIX A
MASS OF A GAS
Suppose you have a cubic container that has a volume
of 22,414 cm3 (the molecular volume of an ideal gas). This cube would have a side of 28.195
cm. Each face would have an area of
794.961 cm2. Evacuate the cube and fill it
with Oxygen gas to a pressure of 1 atmosphere, (1.01325 x 106 dynes/cm2 ) at 273K (0 °C).
We know from the work of J. Maxwell that the
molecules of an ideal gas are flitting around with speeds described by a “normal”
curve. With speeds varying from 0 to quite high. The average, or “root-mean-square” speed u of
an ideal gas is (3RT/M)˝ where R is the Gas Constant 8.3143 x 107 ergs/deg/mole, T is Kelvin
temperature and M is the molecular weight, 32.0 for oxygen. Substituting these values, u = 4.6142x 104 cm/sec.
Assume all our Oxygen molecules are moving at speed
u, and ask what momentum is supplied to each face of the cube. The pressure P must equal the rate of change
of the momentum p. Per collision, the
momentum is mu.
Let n be the number of molecules per cm3. There will then be nu
collisions per sec, so that
P = nu x mu =
nmu2/sec/cm3. There are 22,414 cm3 in our vessel, and motion
is in 3 dimensions, so P = 1.01325 x 106dynes/cm2 =(mn x u2) / (3 x 22414 cm3 ). Since u = 4.6142 x 104 cm/sec, mn = 32.001
gm. This is obviously the correct
answer, since our cube contained the molecular volume, but it illustrates that
the mass of a gas is
proportional to the pressure and thus the momentum of the molecules. There are, of course inelastic collisions in
real gases. and frictional effects caused by
collisions with neutrinos, but most gases at moderate temperatures and
pressures are fairly closely approximated by the ideal gas laws.
APPENDIX B
RADIATION “PRESSURE” (ACTUALLY RADIATION MOMENTUM)
This effect is most easily demonstrated by Crooke’s
Radiometer, or “Light Mill [11]. This
apparatus consists of four vanes , each of which is
blackened on one side and silvered on the other. The entire assembly is suspended on
fine fibers. To actually measure radiation momentum, the
vanes must be coated with an inert glass to prevent outgassing.. The globe that
encloses the vanes must be evacuated to as high a vacuum as possible.
Light is reflected from the silvered sides, and
absorbed by the blackened sides. The
momentum transferred to the silvered sides is 2mc per “ray”. This amounts to 2 x 6x10-28gm x 3x1010 cm/sec = 3.6 x 10-17 gmcm/sec. This is because of the
Simultaneously, other light “rays” are being
absorbed on the blackened face.
For each “ray” the momentum is hf/c = hc/cl = h/l where h is “Planck’s Constant” and l is the wavelength of the light. Supposing visible light of 4000 Ĺ, the
momentum is 1.6675 x 10-22 gmcm/sec. This is much smaller than the momentum
transferred to the silvered side because, on impact, the
Thus the resultant momentum turns the light-mill in
the direction of the silvered side, indicating the so-called Radiation “Pressure”. The effect varies with the intensity of the
light.