WHY SPIN?
By: Clarence. L. Dulaney
e-mail cldtx1@sbcglobal.net
ABSTRACT: This
paper proposes that energy is carried through space by a particulate aether. It also
proposes that spin is a basic and necessary property of subatomic matter,
ACTION-AT-A-DISTANCE (AAD)
One of the major unsolved
problems of physics is, "How is energy transferred throughout
Space". Us there
AAD? If so, exactly how are energy, gravity, electrical attraction (repulsion) and magnetic
attraction transferred throughout space?
Does an electron on earth attract a proton in the "Gamma
Quadrant"? if
so, exactly how?
A case will be made in this
paper that there is no AAD, and that all forces and energies are transmitted
through space by means of a particulate aether. The makeup of this aether
will be described as we go along.
PARTICULATE AETHER
It is here proposed that
spin, actual rotational spin, is one of the basic, necessary properties of
matter, and that spin energy is conserved and propagated throughout space by
means of an ubiquitous aether. This aether is
particulate.
In Maxwell's time the aether was supposed to have to be an elastic solid to carry
Maxwell's electromagnetic radiation consisting of alternating, equal electric
and magnetic waves, A
solid aether was also necessary to carry the
polarized waves1.
In a separate paper2,
it is shown that light (and other radiation) is basically an electrical wave,
and any accompanying magnetic effect is virtually negligible. This eliminates most of the need for a solid aether. In yet
another paper3, it is shown that neutrinos (N) and antineutrinos (A)
carry radiation "waves" and that the + and - spins of the particles
account for the polarization. Thus is
eliminated the other argument for a solid aether.
GRAVITY
Gravity is shown4
to be a "push" effect due to the differential absorption of neutrinos
by the affected bodies. This is a local
effect and cannot be transferred by a wave of nay kind.
QUADRILLIONS OF NEUTRINOS
On the cover of the August
2001 issue of Discover Magazine5 is the depiction of a hand. It is stated that in a 3 second period, 1500
x 1012 neutrinos pass through the area of the hand which is about
200 cm2. This is a substantial
number. Exactly how this number is
arrived at is conjecture, since neutrinos are very difficult to detect (see
Appendix III).
At any rate, there are
probably very large numbers of neutrinos spread throughout the universe (note
that all statements about neutrinos apply equally to antineutrinos). New ones are continually being made in stars6,
and old ones being absorbed in various processes (such as gravity) throughout
the universe. The total number is
probably virtually constant.
There is also AN's which are zero spin
combinations of an A and an N. All of
them receive their spin and motional energy from the stars. Because there are so many of them, they are
constantly colliding. with each other and with
subatomic particles. This maintains the
spin and motional equilibrium. What else
can you ask of an aether.
CHARGED
This paper is interested in
the various subatomic particles, charged and uncharged. The three basic charged subatomic particles
are the electron, the positron and the proton.
There are 3 uncharged particles, the A, the N and the AN. Note that the neutron is not mentioned. Why this is so is explained
in a separate paper6. What are called neutrons are either H atoms,
or high speed, zero charged protons7. The H atom has zero spin. The A has (arbitrary) CCW (+) spin and the N
has CW or (-). The mechanical value of
the spin will be discussed later.
CHARGED MATTER
Nothing specific about the
exact makeup of these particles will be discussed, although a paper by Bergman
and Wesley8 gives what could be a plausible makeup of an
electron.
The positive particles
attract polarizable particles such as the AN which is polarizable. The - spin part would be attracted strongly
to a positron, less strongly to a proton because of the smaller charge
density. All positive particles attract polarizable particles-See Appendix I.
The electron has very little
or no attraction for polarizable particles, and may
even repel them slightly. More likely,
the effect is essentially neutral.
Compare the positron or
proton to a low pressure area in meteorology, which rotates CCW and draws
atmospheric elements into itself. The
analogy of the electron to a high pressure area is also pertinent, since the high
rotates CW and repels other atmospherics at least slightly, like the
"Bermuda High" which just "sits there".
The electron is attracted to
a positron because of unlike charges, and if they collide in the presence of a
"third body" there results an "annihilation reaction"
leading to a gamma particle which goes off at speed c with MeV
range of energy and zero spin. At any
rate the lifetime of the free positron is quite short, because it attracts
numbers of AN's eventually
acquiring a mass of 1836 times that of an electron, thereby becoming a
proton. There are no positrons as such
in nuclei.
The free proton doesn’t last
long as such. It either picks up an
electron to become a H atom, reacts with another
proton to become a Hydrogen molecule or, if it has enough speed may become part
of another atom's nucleus. If it does
this, it must lose some AN's
to be able to remain. This amounts to
about 16 electron masses for essentially any atom9. In any case, the proton keeps its + charge and spin.
There are no naturally occurring
atoms that emit protons10 , See my paper11
,"Nuclear
Structure and Radioactivity".
The proton has a mass of 1.6722 x 10-24 g. If it had a specific gravity of 1000 it would
have a radius 0f 0.15 x 10-8 cm.
If it had a specific gravity of 10,000, the radius would be
3.4 x 10-10
cm.
A single proton and electron
form a Hydrogen atom. The electron and
proton can be separated by a single AN, or can be separated by several neutrino
diameters and still be an H atom. It
requires 13.6 eV to ionize the electron away from the
proton to a distance where there is essentially zero attraction. This is about 30 electron diameters apart, and certainly not in the "Gamma Quadrant".See
my paper12, "The Stationary H Atom" for details.
NEUTRINO LIGHT3
When enough energy is added
too an atom, light wavelets of various frequencies are produced and carried
away by A's and N's. Statistical numbers
of these wavelets form the "light ray", with the + and - spins
accounting for the polarization.
WHAT IS THE MECHANICAL VALUE
OF THE SPIN
That of the electron may be
calculated with the assumption that the peripheral velocity is c. The angular momentum of a spinning sphere
is
J = mr2w. In our case w = c/2p. Suppose r = 10-10
cm. This would make
J = 4.345 x 10-28 ergsec. Compare this
to h/4p which equals 5.2712 x 10-28
ergsec. The latter value would require an electron
radius of 1.21 x10-10 cm. (With this radius, the electron would have
a specific gravity about 122.) It is
postulated that not only the electron, but all the other subatomic and aether particles have this absolute value for spin, and it
is maintained at this value by virtually constant contact with the aether.
SPIN PARITY
The ordinary spin of the
"free" electron is -˝ However, in nuclei and in chemical
bonds some of the electrons will acquire spins of +˝. Whether + or - is determined by the
configuration necessary for minimum energy.
(in some cases there may be several
configurations with virtually equal energy,)
The energy required to
"flip" the spin from + to - , or vice versa, may be estimated from
the bond dissociation energy9 for a diatomic molecule which is
bonded with a 2 electron bond. For
example, the energy is 103 Kcal/mole for H2. Since 1Kcal is equivalent to 23.06 eV,
it would require 4.74 eV per bond to convert the + spin to a -. The 4.74 eV is
probably a maximum
value.
See Appendix II for a
further, very brief, discussion of Spin Parity.
DESTRUCTION OF PROTONS IN
NUCLEI
The production of gamma
particles from nuclei generally always involves destruction of protons. One particular case is the gamma particle
production from 23V50 with a half life of 6 x 1015
years. Suppose an electron comes into
view of a proton across the nucleus, and is accelerated to light speed7. With zero charge, it penetrates to the center
of the proton where it comes into contact with the positron. The two annihilate, destroying the proton and
producing a gamma. The V would be converted to 22Ti49 by
the loss of a proton and an electron from the nucleus.
SUMMARY
1.
Spin is a basic
and a necessary property of subatomic matter.
2.There are two
basic plus charged particles, the positron and the proton. .
3 There
is one negatively charged particle, the electron
4.
There are three zero charged particles, the neutrino, N, The A and The AN.. .
5. There
is a slight attraction between particles of unlike spin, a slight repulsion
between those of like spin. The limit on
attraction and repulsion of subatomic forces is probably about 30 N diameters.
6.
The mechanical
value of the spin of subatomic particles is h/4p.
7.
There is an aether made up of the immense
number of neutrinos. This
aether
transmits energy throughout the universe, and maintains
subatomic
particle spins.
8. The spin of positive subatomic particles
is always +, while that of a "free" electron is -. A bound electron can have either a + or -
spin, with
roughly 4 eV required to "flip" the spin from - to +, or
the reverse.
9. Magnetism17 is accounted for primarily by the
unpaired spins of
electrons in atoms, ions or compounds.
10. Protons lose an average of 16 electron
masses (of AN's) to be able to
stay in nuclei. This number of AN's
would have to be added to a nuclear
proton to release
it from the nucleus. No naturally occurring nucleus emits
protons.
11. Gravity is a "push" effect brought about by
absorption of neutrinos.
REFERENCES
1.
C. H. Thompson,
"Phi Waves and Forces", J. of New Energy, 6, No. 1, 2001 p153
2.
C. Dulaney, "Weber-Ampere Electrodynamics"
. 3. C. Dulaney, "Why C?"
4. C.
Dulaney,
"Push Gravity"
5.
Discover
Magazine, August 2001, p32-40
6.
E. Novotny,
Introduction to Solar Atmospheres and Interiors",
7.
C. Dulaney, "What is an Atom?"
8.
C. Dulaney, "Charge vs
Speed"
9.
D. Bergman and J.
Wesley, Galilean Electrodynamics, 1. #5, (1990), p 63
10. J. Dean, ed. "Langes
Handbook of Chemistry, 12th Edition",
11. G. Hall, "Elementary Modern Physics",
Macmillan Co.,NY, (1949), p454ff
12. C. Dulaney, "The
Stationary Hydrogen Atom"
13. C. Dulaney, "Nuclear
Structure-Radioactivity"
14. F. Cotton and
G. Wilkinson, "Advanced Inorganic Chemistry", John Wiley, NY, (1980),
P
15. j. Huheey, "Inorganic Chemistry",Harper
and /Row, NY, (1972)p-109
16. F. Gucker and R. Seifert,
"Physical Chemistry",
17. C. Dulaney, "A Classical
Look at the Magnetic Properties of Matter"
NOTE:
All my papers may be accessed at: http://mywebpage.netscape.com/clarencedulaney
APPENDIX
I
POSITIVE
IONS ATTRACT POLARIZABLE COMPOUNDS
Suppose
that one has a solution containing 50 gm of Cupric Nitrate in a liter of
water. This solution has a light blue
green color. Now bubble the polarizable molecule ammonia, NH3, through
it. Yje color
becomes a very deep blue due to the formation of the Cu(NH3)2
2+ complex ion.
This ion is quite stable, and has no ammonia odor.
Many
other polarizable molecules such as water, H22O,
Carbon Monoxide, CO, and certain other amines form stable complexes with
various positive ions. The reason that
CO is poisonous is that it forms a very stable complex with the iron in red
blood cells that keeps them from absorbing Oxygen. The hemoglobin, CO complex is blue in color.
Many
of the complex ions have beautiful colors in solutions,
and in some cases as solids14.
Common
hydrates such as Gypsum. CaSO4·2H2O and Borax, Na2B4O7·10H2O
are quite stable solids, and may be found in many households.
No
known complexes involving negative ions with polarizable compounds are known to chemistry15.
It
should be noted that the above is a very superficial mentioning of the vast
literature on complex ion chemistry. See
any textbook on Advanced Inorganic Chemistry14. 15.
APPENDIX
II
SPIN
As
mentioned above, the energy required to flip an electron spin from - to +is
about 4 eV. Compare this to the 13.6 eV required to remove the electron from a
H atom (ionize it).
Chemical
bonds in binary compounds in most cases involve two electrons. In almost all
cases these electrons have opposite spins.. An interesting exception is O2,
which in addition to the normal bond has two additional electrons with
"unpaired" spins (ie, both - ). This causes the Oxygen
molecule to be paramagnetic,
Other molecules such as NO which have an odd number of bonding
electrons are paramagnetic.
The
"Pauli Exclusion Principle" in the language of this paper would state
that electron pairs in atoms and molecules usually have paired spin (+ and -)
values to have the minimum energy. See
any Physical Chemistry textbook16.
As
the Atomic Number of elements increases, so does the number of extranuclear electrons increase. The additional electron's spins follow
Pauli's rule and pair electron spins.
However, after about Atomic Number 25, the electron shells are becoming
large enough that some electrons with unpaired spins may occur. Such atoms, particularly Fe, Co and Ni are
paramagnetic13, 17, Some of their alloys and compounds may
be ferromagnetic.
Most
of the elements up to Atomic Number 25 are "diamagnetic" that is unattracted, or weakly repelled by strong magnets. The question may be asked "Why are atoms
with odd Atomic Numbers not paramagnetic?"
One reason is that such atoms exist as compounds such as H2 or
N2 where there are no unpaired electron spins.
The
above once again is an extremely simplified discussion of a very complicated
subject. Consult referenced textbooks
and the like for much more detail.
APPENDIX
III
"NEUTRINO
DETECTION" AT KAMIOKANDE
In
a deep mine in a Japanese mountain is a "Solar Neutrino Detector",
consisting of a large tank of highly purified water, with internal light ray
detectors5. Solar neutrinos
are supposed to enter the detector, accelerate electrons to above light speed,
so that they give off "Cerenkov radiation" which is registered by the
detectors.
My
questions about this experiment are:
1.
How can
"solar neutrinos" be separated from the quadrillions of other
neutrinos?
2.
How can neutrinos
with supposedly virtually zero mass accelerate electrons to "above light
speeds"?
3.
How can any
effects due to neutrinos be separated from those caused by "cosmic
rays" which are known to pass through thousands of feet of earth?
4.
How can the
Scientific Establishment justify spending so much time, money and effort on
such a fruitless experiment?
© August 23,2006
Clarence L. Dulaney